Ontological semantics /
Nirenburg, Sergei
Ontological semantics / Sergei Nirenburg and Victor Raskin. - Cambridge, Massachussetts: MIT, 2004 - 420 p. - Language, speech, and communication .
CONTENIDO
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xix
PART I About Ontological Semantics 1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Ontological Semantics 5
1.1 A Model of Language-Communication Situation for Ontological Semantic Theory 9
1.1.1 Relevant Components of an Intelligent Agent's Model 10
1.1.2 Goals and Operation of the Discourse Producer 10
1.1.3 Operation of the Discourse Consumer 11
1.2 Ontological Semantics: An Initial Sketch 12
1.3 Ontological Semantics and Nonsemantic NLP Processors 14
1.4 Architectures for Comprehensive NLP Applications 15
1.4.1 The Stratified Model 16
1.4.2 The "Flat" Model 17
1.4.3 Toward Constraint-Satisfaction Architectures 18
1.5 The Major Dynamic Knowledge Sources in Ontological Semantics 22
1.5.1 The Analyzer 22
1.5.2 The Generator 23
1.5.3 World-Knowledge Maintenance and Reasoning Module 23
1.6 The Static Knowledge Sources 25
1.7 The Concept of Microtheories 26
1.8 Historical Record of Ontological Semantic Work 27
Chapter 2 Prolegomena to the Philosophy of Linguistics 33
2.1 Reasons for Philosophizing 34
2.2 Reasons for Theorizing 36
2.2.1 Introduction: Philosophy, Science, and Engineering 36
2.2.2 Reason 1: Optimization 38
2.2.3 Reason 2: Challenging Conventional Wisdom 39
2.2.4 Reason 3: Standardization and Evaluation 41
2.2.5 Reason 4: Explanation 42
2.2.6 Reason 5: Reusability 42
2.3 Components of a Theory 42
2.3.1 Purview 43
2.3.2 Premises 45
2.3.3 Body 46
2.3.4 Justification 47
2.4 Parameters of Linguistic Semantic Theories 50
2.4.1 Parameters Related to Theory Proper 51
2.4.2 Parameters Related to the Methodology Associated with a Theory 56
2.4.3 Parameters Related to the Status of Theory as Model of Human Behavior 63
2.4.4 Parameters Related to the Internal Organization of a Theory 63
2.4.5 Parameter Values and Some Theories 64
2.5 Relations among Theory, Methodology, and Applications 67
2.5.1 Theories and Applications 67
2.5.2 Blame Assignment 72
2.5.3 Methodologies for Applications 73
2.5.4 Aspects of Interactions among Theories, Applications, and Methodologies 74
2.5.5 Examples of Interactions among Theories, Applications, and Methodologies 76
2.6 Using the Parameters 81
2.6.1 Purview 82
2.6.2 Premises 83
2.6.3 Justification 86
2.7 Postempirical Philosophy of Linguistics 89
Chapter 3 Ontological Semantics and the Study of Meaning in Linguistics, Philosophy, and Computational Linguistics 93
3.1 Prehistory of Semantics 94
3.2 Diachrony of Word Meaning 95
3.3 Meaning and Reference 96
3.4 The Quest for Meaning Representation I: From Ogden and Richards to Bar Hillel 97
3.4.1 Option 1: Refusing to Study Meaning 97
3.4.2 Option 2: Semantic Fields, or Avoiding Metalanguage 98
3.4.3 Option 3: Componential Analysis, or the Dawn of Metalanguage 99
3.4.4 Option 4: Logic, or Importing a Metalanguage 100
3.5 The Quest for Meaning Representation II: Contemporary Approaches 102
3.5.1 Formal Semantics 102
3.5.2 Semantic vs. Syntactic Compositionality 106
3.5.3 Compositionality in Linguistic Semantics 107
3.6 A Trio of Freestanding Semantic Ideas from Outside Major Schools 109
3.7 Compositionality in Computacional Semantics 111
Chapter 4 Choices for Lexical Semantics 115
4.1 Generativity 116
4.1.1 Generative Lexicon: Main Idea 116
4.1.2 Generative vs. Enumerative? 118
4.1.3 Generative Lexicon and Novel Senses 118
4.1.4 Permeative Usage? 120
4.1.5 Generative vs. Enumerative Yardage 121
4.2 Syntax vs. Semantics 122
4.3 Lexical Semantics and Sentential Meaning 124
4.3.1 Formal Semantics for Sentential Meaning 124
4.3.2 Ontological Semantics for Sentential Meaning 125
4.3.3 Lexical Semantics and Pragmatics 128
4.4 Description Coverage 129
Chapter 5 Formal Ontology and the Needs of Ontological Semantics 133
5.1 Ontology and Metaphysics 134
5.2 Formal Ontology 136
5.2.1 Formal Basis of Ontology 136
5.2.2 Ontology as Engineering 138
5.2.3 Ontology Interchange 139
5.2.4 The Semantic Web 141
5.3 Ontology and Natural Language 147
5.3.1 A Quick and Dirty Distinction between Ontology and Natural Language 147
5.3.2 The Real Distinction between Ontology and Natural Language 149
5.4 A Wish List for Formal Ontology from Ontological Semantics 154
PART II Ontological Semantics as Such 157
Chapter 6 Meaning Representation in Ontological Semantics 161
6.1 Meaning Proper and the Rest 161
6.2 TMR in Ontological Semantics 166
6.3 Ontological Concepts and Nonontological Parameters in TMR 174
6.4 The Nature and Format of TMR 175
6.5 Further Examples of TMR Specification 182
6.6 Synonymy and Paraphrases 186
6.7 Basic and Extended TMRs 187
Chapter 7 The Static Knowledge Sources: Ontology, Fact Repository, and Lexicons 191
7.1 The Ontology 192
7.1.1 The Format of Mikrokosmos Ontology 196
7.1.2 Inheritance 207
7.1.3 Case Roles for Predicates 209
7.1.4 Choices and Trade-Offs in Ontological Representations 212
7.1.5 Complex Events 218
7.1.6 Axiomatic Definition of Ontology 224
7.2 Fact Repository 228
7.3 The Lexicon 230
7.4 The Onomasticon 245
Chapter 8 Basic Processing in Ontological Semantic Text Analysis 247
8.1 Preprocessing 247
8.1.1 Tokenization and Morphological Analysis 248
8.1.2 Lexical Lookup 250
8.1.3 Syntactic Analysis 251
8.2 Building Basic Semantic Dependency 252
8.2.1 Establishing Propositional Structure 252
8.2.2 Matching Selectional Restrictions 258
8.2.3 Multivalued Static Selectional Restrictions 261
8.3 When Basic Procedure Returns More Than a Single Answer 263
8.3.1 Dynamic Tightening of Selectional Restrictions 264
8.3.2 When All Else Goes Wrong: Comparing Distances in Ontological Space 272
8.4 When Basic Procedure Returns No Answer 274
8.4.1 Relaxation of Selectional Restrictions 274
8.4.2 Processing Nonliteral Language 275
8.4.3 Processing Unattested Inputs 279
8.4.4 Processing Ellipsis 282
8.5 Processing Meaning Beyond Basic Semantic Dependencies 284
8.5.1 Aspect 285
8.5.2 Proposition Time 291
8.5.3 Modality 295
8.6 Processing at the Suprapropositional Level 301
8.6.1 Reference and Coreference 301
8.6.2 TMR Time 305
8.6.3 Discourse Relations 306
8.6.4 Style 308
Chapter 9 Acquisition of Static Knowledge Sources for Ontological Semantics 309
9.1 Automating Knowledge Acquisition in Ontological Semantics 311
9.2 Acquisition of Ontology 314
9.3 Acquisition of Lexicon 322
9.3.1 General Principles of Lexical Semantic Acquisition 322
9.3.2 Paradigmatic Approach to Semantic Acquisition I: "Rapid Propagation" 323
9.3.3 Paradigmatic Approach to Lexical Acquisition II: Lexical Rules 326
9.3.4 Steps in Lexical Acquisition 331
9.3.5 Polysemy Reduction 331
9.3.6 Grain Size and Practical Effability 339
9.3.7 Ontological Matching and Lexical Constraints 344
9.4 Acquisition of Fact Repository 350
Chapter 10 Conclusion 353
Notes 357
References 371
Index 411
0262140861
SEMANTICS
DATA PROCESSING
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
LINGUISTICS
ONTOLOGY
REPRESENTACION DEL CONOCIMIENTO
INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL
ONTOLOGIA SEMANTICA
ONTOLOGICAL SEMANTICS
COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
PHILOSOPHY OF LINGUISTICS
FORMAL ONTOLOGY
LEXICAL SEMANTICS
NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING
004.82 N629
Ontological semantics / Sergei Nirenburg and Victor Raskin. - Cambridge, Massachussetts: MIT, 2004 - 420 p. - Language, speech, and communication .
CONTENIDO
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xix
PART I About Ontological Semantics 1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Ontological Semantics 5
1.1 A Model of Language-Communication Situation for Ontological Semantic Theory 9
1.1.1 Relevant Components of an Intelligent Agent's Model 10
1.1.2 Goals and Operation of the Discourse Producer 10
1.1.3 Operation of the Discourse Consumer 11
1.2 Ontological Semantics: An Initial Sketch 12
1.3 Ontological Semantics and Nonsemantic NLP Processors 14
1.4 Architectures for Comprehensive NLP Applications 15
1.4.1 The Stratified Model 16
1.4.2 The "Flat" Model 17
1.4.3 Toward Constraint-Satisfaction Architectures 18
1.5 The Major Dynamic Knowledge Sources in Ontological Semantics 22
1.5.1 The Analyzer 22
1.5.2 The Generator 23
1.5.3 World-Knowledge Maintenance and Reasoning Module 23
1.6 The Static Knowledge Sources 25
1.7 The Concept of Microtheories 26
1.8 Historical Record of Ontological Semantic Work 27
Chapter 2 Prolegomena to the Philosophy of Linguistics 33
2.1 Reasons for Philosophizing 34
2.2 Reasons for Theorizing 36
2.2.1 Introduction: Philosophy, Science, and Engineering 36
2.2.2 Reason 1: Optimization 38
2.2.3 Reason 2: Challenging Conventional Wisdom 39
2.2.4 Reason 3: Standardization and Evaluation 41
2.2.5 Reason 4: Explanation 42
2.2.6 Reason 5: Reusability 42
2.3 Components of a Theory 42
2.3.1 Purview 43
2.3.2 Premises 45
2.3.3 Body 46
2.3.4 Justification 47
2.4 Parameters of Linguistic Semantic Theories 50
2.4.1 Parameters Related to Theory Proper 51
2.4.2 Parameters Related to the Methodology Associated with a Theory 56
2.4.3 Parameters Related to the Status of Theory as Model of Human Behavior 63
2.4.4 Parameters Related to the Internal Organization of a Theory 63
2.4.5 Parameter Values and Some Theories 64
2.5 Relations among Theory, Methodology, and Applications 67
2.5.1 Theories and Applications 67
2.5.2 Blame Assignment 72
2.5.3 Methodologies for Applications 73
2.5.4 Aspects of Interactions among Theories, Applications, and Methodologies 74
2.5.5 Examples of Interactions among Theories, Applications, and Methodologies 76
2.6 Using the Parameters 81
2.6.1 Purview 82
2.6.2 Premises 83
2.6.3 Justification 86
2.7 Postempirical Philosophy of Linguistics 89
Chapter 3 Ontological Semantics and the Study of Meaning in Linguistics, Philosophy, and Computational Linguistics 93
3.1 Prehistory of Semantics 94
3.2 Diachrony of Word Meaning 95
3.3 Meaning and Reference 96
3.4 The Quest for Meaning Representation I: From Ogden and Richards to Bar Hillel 97
3.4.1 Option 1: Refusing to Study Meaning 97
3.4.2 Option 2: Semantic Fields, or Avoiding Metalanguage 98
3.4.3 Option 3: Componential Analysis, or the Dawn of Metalanguage 99
3.4.4 Option 4: Logic, or Importing a Metalanguage 100
3.5 The Quest for Meaning Representation II: Contemporary Approaches 102
3.5.1 Formal Semantics 102
3.5.2 Semantic vs. Syntactic Compositionality 106
3.5.3 Compositionality in Linguistic Semantics 107
3.6 A Trio of Freestanding Semantic Ideas from Outside Major Schools 109
3.7 Compositionality in Computacional Semantics 111
Chapter 4 Choices for Lexical Semantics 115
4.1 Generativity 116
4.1.1 Generative Lexicon: Main Idea 116
4.1.2 Generative vs. Enumerative? 118
4.1.3 Generative Lexicon and Novel Senses 118
4.1.4 Permeative Usage? 120
4.1.5 Generative vs. Enumerative Yardage 121
4.2 Syntax vs. Semantics 122
4.3 Lexical Semantics and Sentential Meaning 124
4.3.1 Formal Semantics for Sentential Meaning 124
4.3.2 Ontological Semantics for Sentential Meaning 125
4.3.3 Lexical Semantics and Pragmatics 128
4.4 Description Coverage 129
Chapter 5 Formal Ontology and the Needs of Ontological Semantics 133
5.1 Ontology and Metaphysics 134
5.2 Formal Ontology 136
5.2.1 Formal Basis of Ontology 136
5.2.2 Ontology as Engineering 138
5.2.3 Ontology Interchange 139
5.2.4 The Semantic Web 141
5.3 Ontology and Natural Language 147
5.3.1 A Quick and Dirty Distinction between Ontology and Natural Language 147
5.3.2 The Real Distinction between Ontology and Natural Language 149
5.4 A Wish List for Formal Ontology from Ontological Semantics 154
PART II Ontological Semantics as Such 157
Chapter 6 Meaning Representation in Ontological Semantics 161
6.1 Meaning Proper and the Rest 161
6.2 TMR in Ontological Semantics 166
6.3 Ontological Concepts and Nonontological Parameters in TMR 174
6.4 The Nature and Format of TMR 175
6.5 Further Examples of TMR Specification 182
6.6 Synonymy and Paraphrases 186
6.7 Basic and Extended TMRs 187
Chapter 7 The Static Knowledge Sources: Ontology, Fact Repository, and Lexicons 191
7.1 The Ontology 192
7.1.1 The Format of Mikrokosmos Ontology 196
7.1.2 Inheritance 207
7.1.3 Case Roles for Predicates 209
7.1.4 Choices and Trade-Offs in Ontological Representations 212
7.1.5 Complex Events 218
7.1.6 Axiomatic Definition of Ontology 224
7.2 Fact Repository 228
7.3 The Lexicon 230
7.4 The Onomasticon 245
Chapter 8 Basic Processing in Ontological Semantic Text Analysis 247
8.1 Preprocessing 247
8.1.1 Tokenization and Morphological Analysis 248
8.1.2 Lexical Lookup 250
8.1.3 Syntactic Analysis 251
8.2 Building Basic Semantic Dependency 252
8.2.1 Establishing Propositional Structure 252
8.2.2 Matching Selectional Restrictions 258
8.2.3 Multivalued Static Selectional Restrictions 261
8.3 When Basic Procedure Returns More Than a Single Answer 263
8.3.1 Dynamic Tightening of Selectional Restrictions 264
8.3.2 When All Else Goes Wrong: Comparing Distances in Ontological Space 272
8.4 When Basic Procedure Returns No Answer 274
8.4.1 Relaxation of Selectional Restrictions 274
8.4.2 Processing Nonliteral Language 275
8.4.3 Processing Unattested Inputs 279
8.4.4 Processing Ellipsis 282
8.5 Processing Meaning Beyond Basic Semantic Dependencies 284
8.5.1 Aspect 285
8.5.2 Proposition Time 291
8.5.3 Modality 295
8.6 Processing at the Suprapropositional Level 301
8.6.1 Reference and Coreference 301
8.6.2 TMR Time 305
8.6.3 Discourse Relations 306
8.6.4 Style 308
Chapter 9 Acquisition of Static Knowledge Sources for Ontological Semantics 309
9.1 Automating Knowledge Acquisition in Ontological Semantics 311
9.2 Acquisition of Ontology 314
9.3 Acquisition of Lexicon 322
9.3.1 General Principles of Lexical Semantic Acquisition 322
9.3.2 Paradigmatic Approach to Semantic Acquisition I: "Rapid Propagation" 323
9.3.3 Paradigmatic Approach to Lexical Acquisition II: Lexical Rules 326
9.3.4 Steps in Lexical Acquisition 331
9.3.5 Polysemy Reduction 331
9.3.6 Grain Size and Practical Effability 339
9.3.7 Ontological Matching and Lexical Constraints 344
9.4 Acquisition of Fact Repository 350
Chapter 10 Conclusion 353
Notes 357
References 371
Index 411
0262140861
SEMANTICS
DATA PROCESSING
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
LINGUISTICS
ONTOLOGY
REPRESENTACION DEL CONOCIMIENTO
INTELIGENCIA ARTIFICIAL
ONTOLOGIA SEMANTICA
ONTOLOGICAL SEMANTICS
COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
PHILOSOPHY OF LINGUISTICS
FORMAL ONTOLOGY
LEXICAL SEMANTICS
NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING
004.82 N629